Volume One -> E. Resisting Oppressive, Dictatorial, Military or Authoritarian Rule -> E. I. Africa - Sub-Saharan -> E. I.2. Resisting Repressive and Authoritarian Regimes -> E. I.2.1. Popular Movements for Multiparty Democracy: 1988-1992 -> E. I.2.1.a. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in English-Speaking Countries
E. I.2.1.a.i. Malawi and Zambia: Opposition Leads to Regime Change

Two countries that had waged successful unarmed struggle for independence from the white-dominated Central African Federation (see Section B), Zambia and Malawi, also experienced effective campaigns to restore multi-party democracy and to change their leaders through elections – Zambia was a forerunner of the ‘third wave’ of democratization in English-speaking Africa. Church bodies as well as trade unionists and students played a significant role in both cases: see Paul Nugent, Africa Since Independence: A Comparative History (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) , pp. 402-407.
E. I.2.1.a.i. - Zambia
Bratton, Michael Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia, In Jennifer A. Widner, Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, Baltimore MD, John Hopkins University Press, 1994 , pp. 320 , pp. 101-128

Rakner, Lise Trade Unions in Processes of Democratization: A Study of Party Labour Relations in Zambia, Bergen, Norway, Christian Michelsen Institute, CMI Report, 1992 , pp. 6

Examines role of labour in the transition to multi-party democracy in 1991, and concludes that the trade union movement has remained autonomous from the state (despite efforts to incorporate it) and that this is the key reason why the unions led the transition.

Websites recommended

Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia Baltimore MD John Hopkins University Press, 1994
Trade Unions in Processes of Democratization: A Study of Party Labour Relations in Zambia Bergen, Norway Christian Michelsen Institute, CMI Report, 1992

Examines role of labour in the transition to multi-party democracy in 1991, and concludes that the trade union movement has remained autonomous from the state (despite efforts to incorporate it) and that this is the key reason why the unions led the transition.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements)
E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews
, Conflict and Democracy in Africa, (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews), which includes a chapter on the ‘second elections’ in 1996.
E. I.2.1.a.i. - Malawi
van Donge, Jan Kamuzu’s Legacy: The democratization of Malawi, Vol. 94, issue 375, 1995 , pp. 227-257

Englund, Harri Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi, Uppsala, Nordic Africa Institute, 2002 , pp. 208 pb

This book explores how far the ending of one-man rule in 1994 had achieved wider economic, social and cultural changes and explores the continuing problems such as political intolerance and hate speech.  The contributors, mostly from Malawi, criticize both 'chameleon' political leaders and aid donors for supporting superficial democratization.
Nowack, Daniel Process Tracing the Term Limit Struggle in Malawi: The Role of International Democracy Promotion in Muluzi's Bid for a Third Term, Vol. 55, issue 3, 2021 , pp. 291-300

Nowack examines the struggle between 1999 and 2003 to prevent the President serving a third term contrary to the constitution. Drawing on newspaper reports and interviews he argues that a decline in party support and a strong civil society were key, conditions imposed by aid donors and international democracy promotion influenced both these internal factors.

Websites recommended

Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi Uppsala Nordic Africa Institute, 2002

This book explores how far the ending of one-man rule in 1994 had achieved wider economic, social and cultural changes and explores the continuing problems such as political intolerance and hate speech.  The contributors, mostly from Malawi, criticize both 'chameleon' political leaders and aid donors for supporting superficial democratization.
Kamuzu’s Legacy: The democratization of Malawi , 1995
Process Tracing the Term Limit Struggle in Malawi: The Role of International Democracy Promotion in Muluzi's Bid for a Third Term , 2021

Nowack examines the struggle between 1999 and 2003 to prevent the President serving a third term contrary to the constitution. Drawing on newspaper reports and interviews he argues that a decline in party support and a strong civil society were key, conditions imposed by aid donors and international democracy promotion influenced both these internal factors.

See also:

0. Not listed
Mchombo, Sam, Democratization in Malawi: Its roots and prospects
E. I.2.1.a.ii. Ghana and Nigeria: Constitutional Change but Leaders Remain in Power

These two former British colonies in West Africa had both engaged in forms of unarmed struggle under colonialism: Nigeria had a record of significant strikes and tax refusal, and the ‘positive action’ campaign in Ghana became a model of how to achieve independence through nonviolent struggle (see B). Ghana became independent in 1957 and Nigeria in 1960. By the end of the 1980s, however, both had experienced military coups and forms of military rule – in Nigeria the legacy of a bitter war for secession by Biafra 1967-1970, and the divisions between the Muslim North and the Christian South, created particular problems for political stability and democratization.
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Ghana

By the end of the 1980s, the Rawlings government in Ghana was under increasing criticism from the Bar Association for its human rights record and at odds with the churches and the trade unions. The Movement for Freedom and Justice (a broad opposition coalition) was formed in August 1990 to press for democratic change. The regime tried to maintain control through constitutional reform and finally legalised political parties to contest presidential and parliamentary elections in November 1992. Rawlings was returned to power with 58.3% of the vote (despite opposition claims of rigging, Commonwealth observers validated the result). However, at least a regular electoral process had been established with the right of opposition parties to contest elections.

Nugent, Paul Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994, London, Frances Pinter, 1996 , pp. 306

Oquaye, Mike Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy, Accra, Tornado, 2004 , pp. 626

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.
Panford, Kwamina Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 113-126

Websites recommended

Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994 London Frances Pinter, 1996
Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96 Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy Accra Tornado, 2004

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements), chapter on Ghana.
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Nigeria

Despite an unusually independent press and a strong civil society, Nigeria’s transition to multi-party electoral democracy was effectively blocked in a period when many African countries were holding multi-party elections. General Babangida had ousted his military predecessor in 1985, promising a return to civilian rule, but preparations for a new constitution dragged on. The regime ensured that only two parties, which it created, could contest elections, and refused to release the results of the 1992 presidential election and sought support for Babangida to remain head of state. Widespread popular protest in the capital Lagos and in Yorubaland (a Yoruba politician appeared to have won the election according to unofficial results) included civil disobedience and riots. In this confused context the Minister of Defence, General Abacha, seized control of the government. Nigeria did not return to democratic rule until 1999.

Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria, ed. Beckett, Paul; Young, Crawford, Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997 , pp. 450

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, ed. Diamond, Larry; Kirk-Greene, Anthony; Oyediran, Oyeleye, Boulder CO, Lynne Rienner, 1997 , pp. 516

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.
Edozie, Rita People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999, Trenton NJ, Africa World Press, 2002 , pp. 205

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
Ihonvbere, Julius Militarization and Perpetual Transition, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 59-76

The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, ed. Olukoshi, Adebayo, Portsmouth NH, Heinemann, 1993 , pp. 144

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Osaghae, Eghosa Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London, Hurst, 1998 , pp. 342

Websites recommended

Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence London Hurst, 1998
Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria Rochester University of Rochester Press, 1997

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Militarization and Perpetual Transition Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999 Trenton NJ Africa World Press, 2002

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria Portsmouth NH Heinemann, 1993

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida Boulder CO Lynne Rienner, 1997

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.
E. I.2.1.a.iii. Kenya: Resistance to President Moi

When the founding father of Kenyan independence, Jomo Kenyatta, died in 1978, he was succeeded as President by Daniel Arap Moi, who at first initiated some reforms, but soon formalized one-party rule by the Kenyan African National Union (KANU) and became associated with corruption and ruthlessness against political opponents. By the late 1980s and early 1990s increasing disillusion with Moi brought growing resistance from Anglican, Protestant and Catholic churches, professional associations such as musicians, workers who defied the ban on strikes, and students. When prominent politicians called for reform they were detained in June 1990, and Foreign Minister Robert Ouko was murdered in suspicious circumstances. The opposition created a broad-based Forum for the Restoration of Democracy, and foreign aid donors brought pressure to bear for constitutional recognition of opposition parties. The resistance lost momentum, however, before presidential elections in 1992, and divided on ideological and ethnic lines, so that opposition parties fielded three separate candidates and allowed Moi to win with 36.4 per cent of the presidential vote.

Failure of newly-created (or recreated) political parties to coordinate their opposition to the ruling candidate and party, and problems arising from ethnic tensions, were not unique to Kenya. But the Kenyan case is of interest here both because of the significant resistance and because it has been treated as a case study of ‘failure’ of a nonviolent movement, see:

Gustafson, Lindsey Kenya: The Struggle to Create a Democracy, Vol. 2, 1995 , pp. 647-651

Murungi, Kiraitu President Moi and the Decline of Democracy in Kenya, Vol. 8, issue 4, 1991 , pp. 3-18

Press, Robert Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedom, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2006 , pp. 227

Primarily with reference to Kenya, discusses interplay of human rights advocacy and democratic resistance in authoritarian state. Articles by Press on nonviolent movements in Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone can be downloaded from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=1319605.
Sabar, Galia Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition 1963-1993, London, Frank Cass, 2002 , pp. 334

Explores role of Christianity in colonial and post-colonial society and shows the crucial role of the churches in promoting an alternative politics.
Throup, David; Hornsby, Charles Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi States and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election, Oxford, Nairobi and Athens OH, James Currey, EAEP and Ohio University Press, 1998 , pp. 660

Websites recommended

Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition 1963-1993 London Frank Cass, 2002

Explores role of Christianity in colonial and post-colonial society and shows the crucial role of the churches in promoting an alternative politics.
Kenya: The Struggle to Create a Democracy , 1995
Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi States and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election Oxford, Nairobi and Athens OH James Currey, EAEP and Ohio University Press, 1998
Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedom Aldershot Ashgate, 2006

Primarily with reference to Kenya, discusses interplay of human rights advocacy and democratic resistance in authoritarian state. Articles by Press on nonviolent movements in Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone can be downloaded from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=1319605.
President Moi and the Decline of Democracy in Kenya , 1991

See also:

0. Not listed
Kanyinga, Karuti, Contestation over political space: The state and the demobilization of opposition parties